All history as reconstruction of the past is of course myth

The Ummah Slowly Bled: A Select Bibliography of Enslaved African Muslims in the Americas and the Caribbean

By Brent Singleton [You may view the article as PDF]

Introduction

Despite an Islamic presence in the Western hemisphere for over half a millennium, the history of this portion of the Muslim Diaspora is gravely under-researched. There is evidence that Muslims had reached and interacted with Native Peoples long before Columbus made the ‘New World’ known to Europe. Nevertheless, it was Columbus’ voyage and the resultant European onslaught that forever changed the history of Native
Peoples, Africans, and consequently African Muslims.

For 400 years, millions of Africans were forced into chattel slavery in the Americas and the Caribbean. The precise estimates of enslaved Africans of the Islamic faith vary greatly, but the notion that a signiŽ cant percentage was Muslim is unquestioned. Unfortunately, precious few resources related to these African Muslims have been unearthed or fully examined. Over the past three decades more research has been written on the subject and it is becoming an acknowledged phenomenon in the histories of many countries including the United States. From Muslim-led rebellions in Brazil to Islamic scholars and gentry toiling in bondage in Georgia and Maryland, the history of how the West African arm of the Muslim ummah slowly bled is Ž nally coming to light.
The following select bibliography provides an introduction to the research tracing the
plight of enslaved African Muslims in the Americas and the Caribbean. The included works are books, book chapters, and journal articles published through 2001, as well as a small number of signiŽ cant unpublished dissertations. The majority of citations represent scholarly research on the topic in English, Portuguese, French, Spanish, Italian, and German, but also included are several published primary resources in many languages including Arabic. Incorporated sources were limited to those that focus on the topic or contain discrete chapters or sections on enslaved Muslims. Nineteenth and twentieth century newspaper and magazine accounts of enslaved Muslims have been omitted. After a general literature category, the works are arranged geographically and further broken down by country and subtopics within the country when applicable.

General Works about Enslaved Muslims in the Americas and the Caribbean

1. Sultana Afroz, ‘Islam and Slavery Through the Ages: Slave Sultans and Slave Mujahids’, Journal of Islamic Law & Culture, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2000, pp. 97–123.

2. Sylviane A. Diouf, Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas, New York: New York University Press, 1998.

3. Sylviane A. Diouf, ‘Sadaqa Among AfricanMuslims Enslaved in the Americas’,
Journal of Islamic Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1999, pp. 22–32.

4. Paul E. Lovejoy, ‘Cerner les Identities au Sein de la Diaspora AŽ caine, l’Islam
et l’Esclavage aux Ameriques’ (‘Determining Identities Within the African
Diaspora, Islam and Slavery in the Americas’), Cahiers des Anneaux de la
Memoire, Vol. 1, 1999, pp. 249–278. Available online through the York/UNESCO Nigerian Hinterland Project at: , http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/publications/
cahiers/001.htm . .

5. Amir N. Muhammad, Muslims in America: Seven Centuries of History, 1312–
2000: Collections and Stories of American Muslims, 2nd edn, Beltsville, MD:
Amana, 2001.

6. Abdullah Hakim Quick, Deeper Roots: Muslims in the Americas and the Caribbean from before Columbus to the Present, London: Ta-Ha, 1996.

7. Samory Rashid, ‘Islamic In uence in America: Struggle, Flight, Community’,
Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1999, pp. 7–31.

8. Clyde Ahmed Winters, ‘A Survey of Islam and the African Diaspora’, Pan-
African Journal, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1975, pp. 425–434.

9. Clyde Ahmed Winters, ‘Roots and Islam in Slave America’, Al-Ittihad, Vol. 13, No. 3, 1976, pp. 18–20.

10. Clyde Ahmed Winters, ‘Afro-American Muslims from Slavery to Freedom’,
Islamic Studies (Islamabad), Vol. 17, No. 4, 1978, pp. 187–205.

11. Clyde Ahmed Winters, ‘A Chronology of Islam in Afro-America’, Al-’Ilm
(Durban), Vol. 5, 1985, pp. 112–122.

United States

General Works

12. Allan D. Austin, African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984.

13. Allan D. Austin, ‘Islamic Identities in Africans in North America in the Days
of Slavery (1731–1865)’, Islam et Socie´te´s au Sud du Sahara, Vol. 7, 1993,
pp. 205–219.

14. Allan D. Austin, African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997.

15. Sylviane A. Diouf, ‘American Slaves Who Were Readers and Writers’, Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, Vol. 24, 1999, pp. 124–125.

16. Michael A. Gomez, ‘Muslims in Early America’, Journal of Southern History,
Vol. 60, No. 4, 1994, pp. 671–710.

17. Michael A. Gomez, ‘Prayin’ on duh Bead: Islam in Early America’, in Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998, pp. 59–87.

18. James W. Hagy, ‘Muslim Slaves, Abducted Moors, African Jews, Misnamed
Turks, & an Asiatic Greek Lady: Some Examples of Non-European Religious
& Ethnic Diversity in South Carolina Prior to 1861’, Carologue: Bulletin of the
South Carolina Historical Society, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1993, pp. 12–13, 25–27.

19. William Brown Hodgson, The Gospels Written in the Negro Patois of English with Arabic Characters by a Mandingo Slave (Named London) in Georgia, New York: Ethnological Society, 1857.

20. Ronald A. T. Judy, (Dis)forming the American Canon: African–Arabic Slave Narratives and the Vernacular, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.

21. Y. N. Kly, ‘The African-American Muslim: 1776–1900’, Journal of Muslim
Minority Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1989, pp. 152–160.

22. Al-Hajj Wali Akbar Muhammad, Muslims in Georgia: A Chronology & Oral History, Fayetteville, GA: The Brandon Institute, 1994.

23. Sulayman S. Nyang, ‘Islam in the United States of America: A Review of the Sources’, Islamic Culture, Vol. 55, No. 2, 1981, pp. 93–102. Also published under the same title in The Search (Center for Arab–Islamic Studies, Miami, FL), Vol. 1, No. 2, 1980, pp. 164–182.

24. Thomas C. Parramore, ‘Muslim Slave Aristocrats in North Carolina’, North
Carolina Historical Review, Vol. 77, No. 2, 2000, pp. 127–150.

25. Adib Rashad, Islam, Black Nationalism and Slavery: A Detailed History, Beltsville, MD: Writers’ Inc., 1995.

26. Abdulhafeez Q. Turkistani, ‘Muslim Slaves and Their Narratives: Religious
Faith and Cultural Accommodation’, unpublished dissertation, Kent State, 1995.

27. Richard Brent Turner, ‘What Shall We Call Him? Islam and African American
Identity’, Journal of Religious Thought, Vol. 51, No. 1, 1994, pp. 25–52.

28. Richard Brent Turner, Islam in the African-American Experience, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.

29. Richard Brent Turner, ‘African Muslim Slaves, the Nation of Islam, and the
Bible: Identity, Resistance, and Transatlantic Spiritual Struggle’, in African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Textures, ed. Vincent L.
Wimbush, New York: Continuum, 2000, pp. 297–318.

30. Clyde Ahmed Winters, ‘Origins of Muslim Slaves in the U.S.’, Al-Ittihad, Vol. 21, 1986, pp. 49–51.

Biographical Material and Narratives
Abd ar-Rahman Ibrahima

31. Terry Alford, Prince Among Slaves, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.
32. Allan D. Austin, ‘Abdul Rahaman’s History’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 121–263.
33. Allan D. Austin, ‘Abd ar-Rahman and His Two Amazing American Journeys’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 64–83.
34. Edward Everett, ‘Abdul Rahaman’, in Orations and Speeches on Various Occasions, Vol. 3, Boston: Little, Brown, 1879–1883, pp. 186–194.
35. Frederick Freeman, A Plea for Africa: Being Familiar Conversations on the Subject of Slavery and Colonization, Philadelphia: William Stavely, 1838. Abd ar-Rahman is covered on pp. 40–44.
36. Thomas Gallaudet, A Statement with Regard to the Moorish Prince, Abduhl Rahhahman, New York: Daniel Fanshaw, 1828. Available online through the Documenting the American South collection at: , http://docsouth.unc.edu/ neh/gallaudet/menu.html . .
37. Job Ben Solomon and Abd al-Rahman: The Stories of Two Men in Slavery, Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1970. Unseen by compiler, listed in the notes of entries 29 and 32.

38. Bertram Wyatt-Brown, ‘The Mask of Obedience: Male Slave Psychology in the Old South’, American Historical Review, Vol. 93, No. 5, 1988, pp. 1228–1252.

Bilali (Ben Ali) Muhammad

39. Joseph H. Greenberg, ‘The Decipherment of the “Ben Ali Diary”, a Preliminary Report’, Journal of Negro History, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1940, pp. 372–375.
40. B. G. Martin, ‘Sapelo Island’s Arabic Document: The “Bilali Diary” in Context’, Georgia Historical Quarterly, Vol. 78, No. 3, 1994, pp. 589–601.
41. Ella May Thornton, ‘Bilali—His Book’, Law Library Journal, Vol. 47, 1955,
pp. 228–229.

Job Ben Solomon (Ayuba Suleiman Diallo)

42. Allan D. Austin, ‘Job Ben Solomon—African Nobleman and a Father of African American Literature’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 51–62.
43. Thomas Bluett, Some Memoirs of the Life of Job, the Son of Solomon, the High Priest of Boonda in Africa; Who Was a Slave about Two Years in Maryland; and Afterwards Being Brought to England, Was Set Free, and Sent to His Native Land in the Year 1734, London: R. Ford, 1734. Available online through the Documenting the American South collection at: , http://docsouth.unc.edu/ bluett/bluett.html . .
44. Philip D. Curtin, ‘Ayuba Suleiman Diallo of Bondu’, in Africa Remembered:
Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip D. Curtin, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967, pp. 17–59.

45. Douglas Grant, The Fortunate Slave: An Illustration of African Slavery in the Early Eighteenth Century, London: Oxford University Press, 1968.
46. Job Ben Solomon and Abd al-Rahman: The Stories of Two Men in Slavery,
Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1970. Unseen by compiler,
listed in the notes of entries 29 and 32.
47. Arthur Pierce Middleton, ‘The Strange Story of Job Ben Solomon’, William
and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 3, 3rd ser., 1948, pp. 342–350.
48. Francis Moore, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa Containing a Description of the Several Nations for the Space of Six Hundred Miles up the River Gambia; Their Trade, Habits, Customs, Language, Manners, Religion and Government; the Power, Disposition and Characters of Some Negro Princes; with a Particular Account of Job Ben Solomon, London: E. Cave, 1738.

Lamine Kebe

49. Allan D. Austin, ‘Lamen Kebe: Professor Without a Class’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 409–444.
50. Allan D. Austin, ‘Lamine Kebe, Educator’, in African Muslims in Antebellum
America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 115–126.

Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua

51. Allan D. Austin, ‘The Adventures of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 585–654.
52. Allan D. Austin, ‘The Transatlantic Trials ofMahommah Gardo Baquaqua’, in
African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 158–171. 53. Robin Law and Paul E. Lovejoy, The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: His Passage from Slavery to Freedom in Africa and America, Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2001. Includes the text of several documents and letters by and about Baquaqua.
54. Samuel Moore, ‘Biography of Mahommah G. Baquaqua: A Native of Zoogoo’, in Interior of Africa, Detroit: Pomeroy, 1854. Available online through the Documenting the American South collection at: , http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/baquaqua/menu.html . .

For other works concerning Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, see entries 118–120.

Mohammed Ali Ben Said (Nicholas Said)

55. Allan D. Austin, ‘Mohammed Ali Ben Said’s Travels’, in African Muslims in
Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 655–689.

56. Allan D. Austin, ‘Mohammed Ali Ben Said: Travels on Five Continents’,
Contributions in Black Studies, Vol. 12, 1993–1994, pp. 129–158. Revision of
Austin’s 1984 work in entry 55.

57. Allan D. Austin, ‘Mohammed Ali Ben Said or Nicholas Said: His Travels on
Five Continents’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 172–186.

58. Nicholas Said and Precious Rasheeda Muhammad, The Autobiography of
Nicholas Said: A Native of Bornou, Eastern Soudan, Central Africa, Cambridge, MA: Journal of Islam in America, 2001.

Salih Bilali

59. Allan D. Austin, ‘Salih Bilali of Massina—Tom of Georgia’, in African Muslims
in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 309–408.

60. Ivor Wilks, ‘Salih Bilali of Massina’, Africa Remembered: Narratives by West
Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade, ed. Philip D. Curtin, Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press, 1967, pp. 145–151.

Umar ibn Said

61. Allan D. Austin, ‘Omar Ibn Said: The Life and the Legend’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 445–523.
62. Allan D. Austin, ‘Umar Ibn Said’s Legend(s), Life, and Letters’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 128–156.

63. George Callcott, ‘Omar Ibn Seid, a Slave Who Wrote an Autobiography in
Arabic’, Journal of Negro History, Vol. 39, No. 1, 1954, pp. 58–63.
64. Frederick Freeman, A Plea for Africa: Being Familiar Conversations on the Subject of Slavery and Colonization, Philadelphia: William Stavely, 1838. Umar ibn Said is covered on pp. 36–40.

65. J. Franklin Jameson, ‘Autobiography of Omar Ibn Said, Slave in North Carolina, 1831’, American Historical Review, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1924–1925, pp. 787–795.

Others

66. Allan D. Austin, ‘Five Africans in Colonial Maryland’, in African Muslims in
Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 65–120.
Includes biographical sketches of Yarrow Mamout and Job Ben Solomon.

67. Allan D. Austin, ‘Glimpses of Seventy-Five African Muslims in Antebellum
North America’, in African Muslims in Antebellum America: Transatlantic Stories
and Spiritual Struggles, New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 31–49.

68. Sidney Kaplan, ‘Yarrow Mamout: Maryland Muslim’, in The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution, 1770–1800, Greenwich, CT: New York
Graphic Society, 1973, pp. 218–219.

69. D. L. Schafer, ‘Shades of Freedom: Anna Kingsley in Senegal, Florida and
Haiti’, Slavery and Abolition, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1996, pp. 130–154.

Latin America
General Works

70. Raymond Delval, Les Musulmans en Ame´rique Latine et aux Caraõ¨bes (Muslims in Latin America and the Caribbean), Paris: L’Harmattan, 1992.

71. Mohammed Djinguiz, ‘L’Islam dans l’Amerique Centrale et dans l’Amerique
du Sud’ (‘Islam in Central America and South America’), Revue Du Monde
Musulman, Vol. 6, No. 10, 1908, pp. 314–318.

72. Dennis Walker, ‘Black Islamic Slave Revolts of South America’, Islamic Review, Vol. 58, No. 10/11, 1970, pp. 9–11.

Brazil

General Works

73. Roger Bastide, ‘L’Islam Noir au Bre´sil’ (‘Black Islam in Brazil’), Hespe´ris, Vol. 39, 1952, pp. 373–382.

74. Roger Bastide, ‘Black Islam in Brazil’, in The African Religions of Brazil: Toward a Sociology of the Interpretation of Civilizations, trans. Helen Sebba, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, pp. 143–154. Originally published in French as Les Religions Africaines au Bre´sil: Vers une Sociologie des Interpe´ne´trations de Civilizations, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1960. Also published in Portuguese as As Religio˜es Africanas no Brasil: Contribuic¸a˜o a uma Sociologia das Interpenetrac¸o˜es de Civilizac¸o˜es, Sa˜o Paulo: Livraria Pioneira Editora, 1971.

75. Alberto Da Costa e Silva, ‘Buying and Selling Korans in Nineteenth-Century
Rio de Janeiro’, Slavery & Abolition, Vol. 22, No. 1, 2001, pp. 83–90. Also
published under the same title in Rethinking the African Diaspora: The Making
of a Black Atlantic World in the Bight of Benin and Brazil, eds K. Mann and E.
G. Bay, London: Cass, 2001, pp. 83–90.

76. Abelardo Duarte, Negros Muc¸ulmanos nas Alagoas: os Male`s (Black Muslims in Alagoas: The Males), Maceio: Edicoes Caete, 1958.

77. Mary C. Karasch, ‘Children of Allah and Olorun: Islam and Candomble´’, in
Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808–1850, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987, pp. 284–287.

78. Nei Lopes, Bantos, Maleˆs e Identidade Negra (Bantus, Males and Black Identity), Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universita´ria, 1988.

79. Nei Lopes and Joa˜o Baptista M. Vargens, Islamismo e Negritude: da A´ frica ao Brasil, da Idade Me´dia aos Nossos Dias (Islam and Negritude: From Africa to Brazil, from the Middle Ages to the Present Day), Rio de Janeiro: Sector de Estudos A´ rabes da Faculdade de Letras da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, 1982.

80. Paul E. Lovejoy, ‘Jihad e Escravida˜o: As Origens dos Escravos Muc¸ulmanos da Bahia’ (‘Jihad and Slavery: The Origins of the Muslim Slaves of Bahia’), Topoi (Rio de Janeiro), Vol. 1, 2000, pp. 11–44. Available online through the York/UNESCO Nigerian Hinterland Project at: , http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/publications/topoi/001.htm . .

81. John Edwin Mason, Social Death and Resurrsction [sic]: Conversion, Resistance and the Ambiguities of Islam in Bahia and the Cape, Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, Institute for Advanced Social Research, 1995.

82. Antoˆnio Monteiro, Notas sobre Negros Maleˆs na Bahia (Notes on the Black Males in Bahia), Salvador: Ianama, 1987.

83. Zita St. Aubyn Nunes, ‘Os Males do Brasil’: Antropofagia e a Questa˜o da Rac¸a (‘The Males of Brazil’: Anthropophacism and the Question of Race), Rio de Janeiro: CIEC, 1990.

84. Rolf Reichert, ‘El Ocaso del Islam Entre los Negros Brasilen˜os’ (‘The Decline of Islam Among Black Brazilians’), in XXXVI Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, Espan˜a, 1964: Actas y Memorias (XXXVI International Congress of Americanists, Spain, 1964: Proceedings and Transactions), ed. Alfredo Jimenez Nunez, Seville: ECESA, 1966, pp. 621–625.

85. Rolf Reichert, Os Documentos A´ rabes do Arquivo do Estado da Bahia (Arabic Documents in the State Archive of Bahia), Bahia: Universidade Federal da Bahia, Centro de Estudos Afro-Orientais, 1970. Consists of three series originally published in the journal Afro-A´ sia (Salvador, Brazil): ‘1.a Se´rie: Textos Coraˆnicos’, Afro-A´ sia, No. 2–3, 1966; ‘2.a Se´rie: Orac¸o˜ es Islaˆmicas (Na˜o- Coraˆnicos)’, Afro-A´ sia, No. 4–5, 1967; ‘3.a Se´rie: Amuletos, Exercõ´cios de Escrita, Etc.’, Afro-A´ sia, No. 6–7, 1968. Includes 30 facsimiles of documents, accompanied Arabic text and Portuguese translations.

86. Jose´ Ribeiro, Culto Maleˆ (Male Cult), Rio de Janeiro: Editora Espiritualista, 1973.

87. R. Ricard, ‘L’Islam Noir a` Bahia D’Apre`s les Travaux de l’Ecole Ethnologique Bre´silienne’ (‘Black Islam in Bahia According to the Work of the Brazilian Ethnological School’), Hespe´ris, Vol. 35, 1948, pp. 57–78.

88. Raymundo Nina Rodrigues, ‘Os Negros Maometanos no Brasil’ (‘Black Muslims in Brazil’), in Os Africanos no Brasil (Africans in Brazil), Brasilia: Ed. UNB, 1988, pp. 38–70.

89. Vittorio Spinazzola, ‘Islam e Schiavitu’ in Brasile’ (‘Islam and Slavery in
Brazil’), Oriente Moderno, Vol. 47, No. 4, 1967, pp. 269–285.

90. Clyde AhmedWinters, ‘The Muslims of Rio de Janeiro’, The Search (Center for Arab–Islamic Studies, Miami, FL), Vol. 3, No. 1, 1982, pp. 27–48.

Muslim Insurrections in Brazil

91. Zaid Abdul-Aleem, ‘African Muslim Survival and Adaptation in Salvador,
Brazil: Males after the Revolt of 1835’, unpublished dissertation, Duke, 1996.
92. Nilda Beatriz Anglarill, ‘Acerca de los Esclavos Musulmanes de Bahia (Brasil)
y la Revuelta de 1835’ (‘About the Muslim Slaves of Bahia (Brazil) and the
Revolt of 1835’), Scripta Ethnologica, Vol. 13, 1990–1991, pp. 75–90.
93. Anonymous, ‘Pec¸as Proucessuais do Levante dos Maleˆs’ (‘Legal Proceedings of the Male Uprising’), Anais do Arquivo Pu´blico do Estado da Bahia, Vol. 40, 1971, pp. 9–170.
94. Pedro Calmon, Maleˆs, a Insurreic¸a˜o das Senzales (Males, the Rebellion of the Senzales), Rio de Janeiro: Pro Luce, 1933.
95. Decio Freitas, A Revoluc¸a˜o dos Maleˆs: Insurreic¸o˜es Escravass (The Male Revolution; Slave Rebellion), Porto Alegre: Editora Movimento, 1985.
96. Jack Goody, ‘Writing, Religion and Revolt in Bahia’, Visible Language, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1986, pp. 318–343.
97. Etienne Ignace, ‘A Revolta dos Maleˆs (24 para 25 de Janeiro de 1835)’ (‘The Male Revolt (24th and 25th of January 1835’)), Revista do Instituto Histo´rico e Geogra´ Ž co Brasileiro, Vol. 14, No. 33, 1907, pp. 129–149.
98. Etienne Ignace, ‘Os Male´s’, Revista do Instituto Histo´rico e Geogra´ Ž co Brasileiro, Vol. 72, No. 2, 1909, pp. 67–126.
99. Etienne Ignace, ‘La Secte Musulmane des Male`s du Bre´sil et Leur Re´volte en 1835, Chapitre Premier: Doctrine, Ethique et Culte des Male`s’ (‘The Muslim Male Sect of Brazil and Their Revolt in 1835, Chapter One: Doctrines, Ethics and the Male Cult’, Anthropos (Salzburg), Vol. 4, No. 1, 1909, pp. 99–105.

100. Etienne Ignace, ‘La Secte Musulmane des Male`s du Bre´sil et Leur Re´volte en 1835, Chapitre Second: La Re´volte des Male`s (24–25 Janvier 1835)’ (‘The Muslim Male Sect of Brazil and Their Revolt in 1835, Chapter Two: The Male Revolt (24–25 January 1835)’), Anthropos (Salzburg), Vol. 4, No. 2, 1909, pp. 405–415.
101. T. B. Irving, ‘King Zumbi and the Male Movement in Brazil: Research Notes’, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1992, pp. 397–409.
102. Raymond Kent, ‘African Revolt in Bahia: 24–25 January, 1835’, Journal of
Social History, Vol. 3, 1970, pp. 334–356.
103. Paul E. Lovejoy, ‘Background to Rebellion: The Origins of Muslim Slaves in Bahia’, Slavery & Abolition, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1994, pp. 151–180. Also published under the same title in Paul E. Lovejoy, ed., Unfree Labour in the Development of the Atlantic World, London: Cass, 1994, pp. 151–180.

104. Francisco Gonc¸alves Martins, ‘OfŽ cio do Chefe de Policia Sobre a Insurreic¸a˜o de 1835’ (‘OfŽ ce of the Chief of Police on the Rebellion of 1835’), Revista do Instituto Geogra´phico e Histo´rico da Bahia, Vol. 10, No. 29, 1903, pp. 107–115.
105. Vincent Monteil, ‘Analyse des 25 Documents Arabes des Males de Bahia
(1835)’ (‘Analysis of 25 Arabic Documents of the Males of Bahia (1835)’),
Bulletin de l’Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, Vol. 29, Ser. B, No. 1–2, 1967, pp. 88–98.
106. Yusuf A. Nzibo, ‘The Muslim Factor in the Afro-Brazilian Struggle Against
Slavery’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1986, pp. 547–556.

107. Howard Prince, ‘Slave Rebellion in Bahia, 1807–1835’, unpublished dissertation, Columbia University, 1972.
108. Manuel Querino, ‘Dos Maleˆs’, in Costumes Africanos no Brasil (African Costumes in Brazil), Recife: Fundac¸a˜o Joaquim Nabuco, Editora Massangana, 1988, pp. 66–73.
109. R. Quiring-Zoche, ‘Glaubenskampf oder Machtkampf? Der Aufstand der Male von Bahia nach einer Islamischen Quelle’ (‘Holy War or Power Struggle? The Male Revolt of Bahia According to an Islamic Source’), Sudanic Africa, Vol. 6, 1995, pp. 115–124. Available online at Sudanic Africa at: , http://www.hf.uib.no/smi/sa/06/6Quiring.pdf . .
110. Rolf Reichert, ‘L’Insurrection d’Esclaves de 1835 a` la Lumie`re des Documents Arabes des Archives Publiques de l’E´ tat de Bahia (Bresil)’ (‘The Slave Insurrection of 1835 in Light of the Arabic Documents of the Public Archives of the State of Bahia (Brazil)’), Bulletin de l’Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire, Vol. 29, Ser. B, No. 1–2, 1967, pp. 99–104.
111. Joa˜o Jose´ Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Also published in Portuguese as Rebelia˜o Escrava no Brasil: A Histo´ria do Levante dos Maleˆs (1835), Sao Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1986.
112. Joa˜o Jose´ Reis, ‘O Levante dos Maleˆs na Bahia: uma Interpretac¸a˜o Polõ´tica’ (‘The Male Uprising in Bahia: A Political Interpretation’), Estudos Econoˆmicos, Vol. 17 (special issue), 1987, pp. 131–149.
113. Joa˜o Jose´ Reis, ‘Slave Resistance in Brazil: Bahia, 1807–1835’, Luso-Brazilian Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, 1988, pp. 111–144.
114. Joa˜o Jose´ Reis and P. F. de Moraes Farias, ‘Islam and Slave Resistance in Bahia, Brazil’, Islam et Socie´te´s au Sud du Sahara, Vol. 3, 1989, pp. 41–66.
115. Stuart B. Schwartz, ‘Cantos e Quilombos Numa Conspiraca˜o de Escravos Haussa´s: Bahia 1814’ (‘Songs and Quilombos in a Conspiracy of Hausa Slaves: Bahia 1814’), in eds Joa˜o Jose´ Reis and Fla´vio dos Santos Gomes, Liberdade por um Fio: Histo´ria dos Quilombos no Brasil (Freedom by a Thread: History of the Quilombos in Brazil), Sa˜o Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1996, pp. 373–406.
116. Pierre Verger, ‘Slave Revolts and Uprisings in Bahia, 1807–1835’, in Trade Relations Between the Bight of Benin and Bahia from the 17th to 19th Century, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1976, pp. 285–313. Originally published in French as Flux et Re ux de la Traite des Ne`gres Entre le Golfe de Be´nin et Bahia de Todos os Santos, du XVIIe au XIXe Sie`cle, Paris: La Haye, Mouton, 1968.
117. Clyde Ahmed Winters, ‘The Afro-Brazilian Concept of Jihad and the 1835
Slave Revolt’, Afrodiaspora: Journal of the African World, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1984,
pp. 87–91.

Biographical Material and Narratives

Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua

118. Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, ‘Recollections of a Slave’s Life’, in The African in Latin America, ed. A. M. Pescatello, New York: Knopf, 1975, pp. 186–194. Covers Baquaqua’s life in Brazil, excerpted from the Samuel Moore work in entry 54.
119. Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, BiograŽ a e Narrativa do Ex-Excravo Afro-
Brasileiro (Biography and Narrative of an Afro-Brazilian Ex-Slave), trans. Robert Krueger, Brasõ´lia: Hedic¸o˜ es Humanidades, 1997.
120. Silvia Hunold Lara, ‘BiograŽ a de Mahommah G. Baquaqua’, Revista Brasileira Histo´ria (Sa˜o Paolo), Vol. 16, 1988, pp. 269–284. Short introduction followed by a Portuguese translation of the Samuel Moore work in entry 54.

For other works concerning Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua, see entries 51–54.

Other Latin American Countries

General Works

121. Germa´n de Granda, ‘Datos Antroponõ´micos Sobre Negros Esclavos Musulmanes en Nueva Granada’ (‘Anthroponymic Data on Black Muslim Slaves in New Granada’), Thesaurus (Colombia), Vol. 27, No. 1, 1972, pp. 89–103.

Caribbean

General Works

122. Muhammad Abdul Jassan, ‘Muslims’ Struggle Against Slavery and Their
Efforts for Retention of Cultural Identity in the Caribbean Territories’, Hamdard
Islamicus, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1998, pp. 75–84.

123. Raymond Delval, Les Musulmans en Ame´rique Latine et aux Caraõ¨bes (Muslims in Latin America and the Caribbean), Paris: L’Harmattan, 1992.

124. Abdullah Hakim Quick, ‘Islam in the Caribbean: Past, Present and Future’, in Islam in Africa: Proceedings of the Islam in Africa Conference, eds Nura Alkali et al., Ibadan: Spectrum, 1993, pp. 387–417.

Haiti

General Works

125. Le Grace Benson, ‘Some Observations on West African Islamic Motifs and
Haitian Art’, Journal of Caribbean Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1–2, 1992–1993, pp. 59–66.

Biographical Material and Narratives

126. D. L. Schafer, ‘Shades of Freedom: Anna Kingsley in Senegal, Florida and
Haiti’, Slavery and Abolition, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1996, pp. 130–154.
See also works concerning Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua who spent time in Haiti, entries 51–54 and 118–120.

Jamaica

General Works

127. Sultana Afroz, ‘The Unsung Slaves: Islam in Plantation Jamaica’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 15, No. 1–2, 1994, pp. 157–170. Also published under the same title in Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 3–4, 1995, pp. 30–44.
128. Sultana Afroz, ‘The Manifestation of Tawhid: The Muslim Heritage of the
Maroons in Jamaica’, Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 45, No. 1, 1999, pp. 27–40.
129. Sultana Afroz, ‘From Moors to Marronage: The Islamic Heritage of the
Maroons in Jamaica’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1999,
pp. 161–179.
130. Sultana Afroz, ‘The Jihad of 1831–1832: The Misunderstood Baptist Rebellion in Jamaica’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 21, No. 2, 2001, pp. 227–243.

Biographical Material and Narratives

Abu Bakr al-Siddiq

131. Richard Robert Madden, ‘The Scherife of Timbuctoo’, in A Twelve Month’s
Residence in the West Indies, During the Transition from Slavery to Apprenticeship, Westport, CT: Negro Universities Press, 1970, pp. 121–130. A letter written by Madden, which includes: ‘The History of Abon Becr Sadika, Known in Jamaica by the Name Edward Donlan’. See also: ‘Capabilities of Negroes’, pp. 130–147—comprised of various letters by and about Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, including correspondence between al-Siddiq and Mahomed Caba (Robert TufŽ t).
132. G. C. Renouard, ‘Routes in North Africa, by Abu Bekr es Siddik’, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 6, 1836, pp. 100–113.
133. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, ‘Documents: Abou Bekir Sadiki, Alias Edward Doulan’, Journal of Negro History, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1936, pp. 52–55. Translation of short autobiography originally in Arabic.
134. Ivor Wilks, ‘Abu Bakr al-Siddiq of Timbuktu’, in ed. Philip D. Curtin, Africa
Remembered: Narratives by West Africans from the Era of the Slave Trade,
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967, pp. 152–169.

Others

135. Allan D. Austin, ‘Six African Muslims in Jamaica’, in African Muslims in
Antebellum America: A Sourcebook, New York: Garland, 1984, pp. 525–583.
Includes biographical sketches of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Mohammed Kaba,
‘William Rainsford’, ‘Benjamin Cochrane’, Anna Mousa, and Benjamin
Larten.

Trinidad and Tobago

General Works

136. Maureen Warner-Lewis, ‘Ethnic and Religious Plurality Among Yoruba Immigrants in Trinidad in the Nineteenth Century’, in Identity in the Shadow of
Slavery, ed. Paul E. Lovejoy, London: Continuum, 2000, pp. 113–128.

Biographical Material and Narratives

Mohammedu Sisei

137. Carl Campbell, ‘Mohammedu Sisei of Gambia and Trinidad, c. 1788–1838’, African Studies Association of the West Indies Bulletin, Vol. 7, 1974, pp. 29–38.
138. Capt. J. Washington, ‘Some Account of Mohammedu Sisei: A Mandingo of Nyani-Maru on the Gambia’, Journal of the Royal Geographic Society, Vol. 8,
1838, pp. 448–454.

Others

139. Carl Campbell, ‘John Mohammed Bath and the Free Mandingos in Trinidad: The Question of Their Repatriation to Africa 1831–38’, Journal of African Studies, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1975–1976, pp. 467–495. Despite the published title, the name ‘Jonas’ is used throughout article instead of ‘John’. Also published under the same title in Pan-African Journal (Kenya), Vol. 7, No. 2, 1974, pp. 129–152.
140. Jacques de Cauna, ‘L’Odysse´e d’un Esclave Musulman du Se´ne´gal a` Versailles en Passant par Tobago’ (‘The Odyssey of a Muslim Slave from Senegal to Versailles en Route to Tobago’), Revue de la Socie´te´ Haõ¨tienne d’Historie et de Ge´ographie, No. 165, 1990, pp. 59–63. Also published under the same title in Ge´ne´alogie et Histoire de la Caraõ¨be, Vol. 11, 1989, p. 81.